Abstract:The use of chatbots for various forms of companionship is growing rapidly, raising a myriad of questions about simulated relationships, emotional dependence, and psychological harm. While major platforms such as ChatGPT, Grok, and this http URL are the subject of a growing body of research and legal inquiries, apps explicitly built for simulating intimate interpersonal relationships remain under-explored. In this work, we evaluate the five most popular AI companion mobile applications in the EU and UK markets for factors that encourage parasocial interaction and may manipulate users. We do this by manually annotating the user experience each offers. Specifically, we systematically record and quantify design dark patterns, anthropomorphism, stereotypes, erotica, and technical performance issues. We find that all apps contain substantial dark patterns aimed at increasing monetisation and user engagement. Erotica and gamification features such as levelling are also prevalent, and although other features vary considerably between applications, all apps have highly anthropomorphic design. These findings shed light on the mechanics used to leverage users' simulated relationships. On that basis, we put forward concrete recommendations for regulators to strengthen consumer protection in this rapidly emerging market. Content warning: This article contains objectifying images of women, erotic images, textual references to incest, and other potentially sensitive, offensive, and distressing text.
| Subjects: | Computers and Society (cs.CY); Artificial Intelligence (cs.AI); Human-Computer Interaction (cs.HC) |
| ACM classes: | K.4.2; I.2.1 |
| Cite as: | arXiv:2605.08093 [cs.CY] |
| (or arXiv:2605.08093v1 [cs.CY] for this version) | |
| https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2605.08093 arXiv-issued DOI via DataCite |
Submission history
From: Maribeth Rauh [view email]
[v1]
Wed, 8 Apr 2026 16:22:45 UTC (25,852 KB)